节奏和语调的十五条规则

语调甚至比学习元音和辅音还重要，例子：It’s nice to meet you.

如果要重读一个单词，在语调上要更响亮，拉的更长（louder, longer and higher in pitch）.

十五条规则包括：

• 一个单词内的音节重读
• 句子中的单词重读
• 如何升高或降低语调

规则一：音节重度的基础

音节是语言的最小单位，有时包含元音，有时包含元音和辅音

如果句子包含2个独立的元音，那么就有2个独立的音节

单词seat只有一个音节无需考虑哪个重读，但是science有两个，Science
更多示例：audioVisual, Decade, Locate, Colleague, Detail, Female, parEnthsis, jaPan, Necessary, irAn, neCEsssity, sucCess, URban

有时一个单词从动词变为名词或形容词时，重读音节会随之变化

规则二：动词和名词的音节

对于有两个音节的单词，如果是名词，90%的情况下，第一个音节重读。

office, problem, window, paper, building, mother, father

如果是动词，大约60%-70%的情况下，第二个单词重读。

apply, agree, relax, complain, enjoy

record /Record/, I would like to get the new Record.
/recOrd/, I would like to recOrd that movie.
相似的还有，Object vs objEct

I hope to proGress.
You’re making good PROgress.
Did he inSULT him.
Yes, I heard the INsult.
Do you like that OBject.
No, I obJECT to it.
Is there a CONflict between them?
Yes, those two always conFLICT.
I want to presENT you to my family.
I will bring them a nice PREsent.
Do you have the INsert?
Where should I inSERT it?
Do you reCALL it? No, I have no Recall of it.

注意：多个音节的时候，通常都是第一个或者最后一个音节重读

规则三：”ATE”字母组合的单词

ate，组合的单词，如果是动词，发音有点像数字’8’的发音；如果是形容词或者名词，发音就是/it/或/et/

graduate, /graduate/ vs /graduet/, He’s a college graduate.
estimate, /estimate/ vs /estimet/, I would like to estimate the cost of this. Please give me an estimet of the cost.
articulate, /articulate/ vs /articulet/, He is a very articulet man.

estimate, seperate, approximate, negtiate, calculate, nominate, donate, delicate, chocolet, accuret, intimet

Did he graduate from college.
Yes, and now he’s in graduate school working on his PhD.
I will calculate it and give you and estimate.
I don’t think that number is accurate.
I think you’re exaggerating the amount.
That’s just an approximate estimate.
Thanks for the chocolate.
I really appreciate it.

规则四：后缀的重读规则

后缀就是跟在一个单词后面的字母组合额，例如：quick->quickly

• 如果单词以ese结尾，我们重读后缀，例如：chinese, japanese
• 如果单词以eer结尾，重读应该放在后缀，例如；pioneer, volunteer, engineer
• 如果单词以ique结尾，重读应该放在后缀，例如：antique, boutique, critique, technique
• 如果以ic结尾的词，不重读后缀，而是重读后缀前的音节，例如：realistic, electric, strategic, optimistic, terrific

从名词到形容词重读所发生的变化

Origin, oRiginal
Industry, inDustrial
mEmory, meMorial
fInance, fiNancial
prEsident, preSidential

规则五：非重读音节的作用

madam -> mAdm
problem -> problm
symptom -> symptm
album -> albm
doctor -> dOctr atom -> Adm, Adam -> Adm
photograph -> phtOgraph

拼写不一样，但是发音一样的单词：
lesson vs lessen
caller vs collar
profit vs prophet
seller vs cellar

以元音字母+m字母组合结尾，以及两个oo的单词，第一个音节重读，第二个音节降调。

去掉的字母表示弱化
economy -> icOnmy
memory -> mEmry
control -> cntrOl
contain -> cntAIN
develop -> dvElp
europe -> Eurpe
information -> infrmAtn
commercial -> cmmErcl

规则六：句子中单词重读的依据

句子中有某些单词我们是要重读的，这样可以产生美语中的自然节奏和韵律。

I will be driving to the market to buy something to eat.

• 实体词（content word）承载着句子要表达的意思
• 实体词周围的单词叫做功能词（function word），对句子没有影响

如果遇到2个实体词，通常第二个实体词重读

实体词重读，并且音调上扬
I got a job.
do me a favor.
let’s go for a walk.
did you do your homework.
Did you get it?
Did you see it? Did you see the film.
who stole it. who stole my money? who stole my money from me?

更多练习

I was dishing for her.
He’s fixing the car. He’s fixing the car for them.
I just get a new job.
I am so excited about it.
I couldn’t find one for a long time.
On the first day, I was really nervous.
There was so much to learn.
I’m working at the store.
I’m selling women’s shoes.
I started working there last week.

注意：重读一个单词时，声音更响，语调更长，不要使用过多的声调。

规则七：焦点词和虚拟分组（focus word and thought groups）

长句子包含多个实体词的情况，把长句子分成几个虚拟的组

I will be driving too the market / to buy something to eat.

• 焦点词是组内最重要的单词

停顿多发生在分组之间和出现关键词的时候

I was so tired / that I couldn’t wait / to get home.
If I forget to pay my bill / please remind me about it.
He wants to know / if you need anything from the supermarket.
Did you know it was snowing / in all parts of the East COAST.
When we climb / to the top of the mountain / we could see the ocean.

焦点词一般是分组之后的第一个词，通常是名词或者动词

规则八：怎么重读形容词和名词

当有形容词和名词的时候，英语通常重读的是名词，比如 It’s a hot day.

You did a good job.
I have a blond hair.
I’m wearing black shoes.

如果只有形容词，当然重读形容词

That was FAST. That was a fast FLIGHT.

如果名词前面有2个形容词，重读第一个形容词和名词。

BIG black DOG, ANGRY old MAN, LONG hot SHOWER

规则九：复合名词的重读（compound nouns）

复合名词是用2个单词来表达事物，强调第一个单词

CREDITcard, EYElid, EARring, EYEbow, FOREhead
HAIR style, HAIR color, Hair salon, Hair brush, BOOK shelf, LAP top, WINDOW frame

Please give me your PHONE number with the AREA code first.
My house has three BED rooms and two BATH rooms.
I got aa HEADache from the loud ROCK music.
The POLICE office was on a MOTORcycle.
After their WEDDING day, they went on their HONEY moon.
I bought a BIRTHDAY present for my ROOM mate.

记：形容词+名词，重读第二个单词，重读名词；当2个名词组成复合词，重读第一个单词

规则十：动词短语的重读规则（phrasal verbs）

• 对于动词短语，重读第2个单词，通常是介词，例如: pick UP, break DOWN
• 有时动词短语之间有一个介词或名词，例如: pick it UP, turn it ON, cross it OUT
• 有时动词短语等同于名词，重读第一部分，例如：WORKout

I found OUT about it.
can you look it OVER for me?
I’ll think it OVER and I’will call you BACK.
I can’t figure OUT why it broke DOWN.
when he grew UP, he moved OUT.

更多实例

make UP, I’m wearing MAKEup.
check UP, I went to a doctor to get a medical CHECKup.
break UP, They decide to BREAKup.
turn OFF, that’s the real TURNoff.
print OUT, i would like to print OUT the information, please give me the PRINTout.

规则十一：人名和地名

如果地名由2个单词组成，重读第2个单词，south AMERICA

los ANGELS, las Vegas, mexico CITY, south AFRICA, central PARK

人名也一样，重读姓氏，也就是第二个单词

george WASHINTON, barack OBAMA

当名词有3个单词时，重读最后一个单词

martin luther KING, john fitzgeraldd KENNEDY

更多练习

john WILSON and bob JONES went to south AMERICA.
cnetral PARK is in new YORK.
his father likes bob DYLAN, but his grandfather like frank SINAATRA.

记住：最后一个单词重读最多

规则十二：缩写词和数字

• 缩写词是有较长的名称缩写而来，例如: CNN, UCLA, PHD
  规则：重读缩写词的最后一个字母，并且要将缩写连起来像一个单词读

  ASAP, PC, DVD, CN, IQ, Parker /PAR-KER/

• 数字和缩写词一样，通常最后一部分重读，例如：fifty EIGHT

另外，扩展到电话号，生日，出生年月，节日

I went to work at 9:15 and came home at 5:45
flight 507 laX at 5:45
He was born in lA in 1987

规则十三：特殊强调的要重读

在某些情况下，如果处于某种原因，或你要突出某个意思时，要对这个单词重读。
例：this is the BEST ice cream i ever had
更富感情色彩，要确保别人真的明白你的观点。但是，不要过于频繁。
最后一部分的重读通常比前面的要强

规则十四：升调和降调（rising and falling intonation）

声调是你声音的起伏，升降。例如，all right，降调的话表示陈述，如果是表示疑问，就会升调

更多陈述性的例子：

i like it, i’m tired, have a nice day, i’m hungry, it’s cold outside

提问的语调，可以上升，也可以下降，主要取决于问题的类型

• 回答是Yes/No类的问题，声调是升的，例如：Are you happy?
• WH开头的问题，都是降调，WH前缀的包括：when, where, why, what, how

Are you angry at me? Why are you angry at me.

规则十五：声调到的变化

在句子里面，声调可能会发生变化交替

• 在列举多个物品的句子中，列举的每个物品的都要升调，最后一个降调，例如： i bought chicken, fish, apple, and sugar at the supermarket.
  另外，当你是升调的时候，对方就知道你没有说完，声调降了，说明你说完了，例如：
  i wake up, ate breakfast, i went to work.
• 对于引导性的文字，我们使用升调（introducing words），例如：
  on the other hand（升）, maybe i’ll go.（降）
  if you ask me（升）, i think it’s a good job.（降）
  if i were you, i would talk to him.
• 当你给别人提供选择时，也是用升降调，例如：
  should i call you(升) or sent you an email?（降）
  do you like chicken or beef?
  does he have green eyes or blue eyes?

更多练习

are you married(升) or single？（降）
they have four children ages seven nine eleven and fourteen.
i went to the gym, came home, and called my friends.
as far as i know(升), i’m not allergic to anything（降）.
according to the weather report(升), it’s going to rain（降）.

15个辅音发音规则

辅音发音错误的主要原因： 1.这些音在你的母语中可能并不存在； 2.即使存在于你的辅音，发音可能与英语也不相同

规则一：发准每一个音，不要走捷径（fully pronouncing each sound）

I need five dollars.
Pro ba bly
general
数字基本都是要发准辅音：seven, t w e l ve

规则二：清辅音和浊辅音（voiced and voiceless consonants）

在有些语中，发生的音不出现在词末，只存在于词首和词中
five, Ed/ɛt/
发音的音前面的元音比较长（vowel is longer before voiced consonant）

在结尾发音的辅音，元音拉长，eyes/z/, bag
在结尾不发音的辅音，元音不用拉长，ic/s/e, back

对比如下

规则三：”TH”的发音

/θ/的发音有点像/s/，是voiceless的，发音技巧是舌头碰触到上面
/ð/的发音有点像/z/，是voiced的，发音技巧是舌头与上齿不要太紧，让气流出来，例如bath
/θ/和/ð/的发音，舌头确保碰到牙齿，/s/和/z/舌头是不碰到牙齿的

常见的错误是将/θ/和/ð/发音为s，z，比如south; 另外也不要太用力，否则就发音为t和d

I’m thirsty. Is there anything to drink in this place?
I thought it was a Thursday at three thirty.
This is my fourth month studying math.
Both my mother and my father are healthy.
I think Matthew lives in the north.

总结：th发音与舌头的位置有关系，确保舌头与牙齿的接触是轻轻地。

规则四：”L”的发音

位于词尾部的时候，比较难，美式不发音，比如call，bill，不发/la/的音

发音技巧：释放舌头，让舌头触碰上齿的背面。然后让舌头停留在那。 所以，美国的”L”音延长了，发音更轻，更长（prolonged and softer）。

亚洲人尤其注意”L”没有放在词末，错误的发音为/cawh/，而不是/call/。 所以，错误的做法就是舌头放在了下面，词末没有使用舌头发音，要听到清晰的”L”音。
feed，school, 发音不要发/schooh/, 而是/schoool/，卷起舌头，位于上齿的后面。 然而，卷起舌头后，不要把舌头拉太远，否则发音像”R”，比如wall vs war。

feel，ill，awful，film，little，animal
I’ll call you to tell you about the film.
I feel terrible about the political scandal.
I think I’ll be able to handle it by myself.
You’ll do well at school.

总结：拉长L的音，舌头位于牙齿的后面

规则五：”R”的发音

英式发音，最后一个”r”一般不发音，但是美式中，永远发音。比如，four

发音技巧：舌头不能碰触上齿的顶部，舌头卷曲，向后面拉（curl tip and pull it back）. /er/ four hear

位于词末和另一个辅音前，都不会是无声的

lear n, Ger man, Robert, Parker, first, person

Their computer isn’t working.
I gave her four other pictures.
Her fourth birthday is on Thursday.
There are many more over there.
We were the first to arrive at the park.

总结：要发响亮清晰的”er”音，把舌头卷起来，缩回去

规则六：”W”的发音

发音技巧：卷起嘴唇，要有大量的气流经过，确保你的声带振动。从你的肺部呼出气流，有点像吹气球。
wait，常见错误，使用下唇，和用下唇去触碰上齿，会改音。wine vs vine

常见单词：welcome，always

kw发音，q-u组合发音kw，例如：quick, question, require, quality, liquid, quick

What do you want to do this weekend?
I’m always required to work on Wednesday.
She will wear a white wedding dress on her wedding day.
I have a quick question about the quality of the watch.
There are always twelve women with the children.
We wish we were with our wives.

总结：双唇卷动，气流中出

规则七：”V”和”W”的发音

/v/ 下唇要碰触上齿，不要把下齿咬的太紧，只有几分空气的振动。

常见的错误：

• 有些人没有使用下唇，have，vote，very
• 发音较快，丢掉v，例如：involved，five months
• v在中间时，比较难发音，例如：eleven，seven

He’s very involved in their lives.
I’ve been here from five too seven hours.
I will visit the village on my vocation.
Have you viewed the five videos?
We will review their votes in november.

很容易混淆v和w，例如vest和west。区别在于是否碰触和双卷

vow - wow
vet - wet
vine - wine
vest - west

twelve, vowels, five, women, very, weird, west, virginia
however you wish
I’ll have wine with the veal.

规则八：”S”和”Z”发音

has，末尾是s，但是发/zuh/音，再比如bags，发音/zuh/。
如何区分”s”和”z”:
看”s”前面的辅音字母是发声的还是不发声的。 如果前面辅音不发声，那s也不发声，例如books，即一个不发声的音跟着另一个不发声的音。

laugh/f/s => /laughs/，不发音的likes，cooks，doctors，mats
lives => /livez/，发音的feels，cares

问题：如果单词的最后一个字母不是辅音怎么办？例如，has 当存在元音时，读音是’z’，有例外，但是这是一个大规律，例如: is=>iz

was, because, these, those, please, always

s发音为z的例句：
He plays the drums on the weekends.
She has friends in many countries.
Does he always use those things.
It rains and snows in these areas.

规则九：停顿和连读音

辅音的分类除了从发声和不发声区分外，还从停顿或连续音来分类
停顿是一个辅音通过气流的流动来发音，例如job，b停顿；连续例如Yes->Yessss

区分停顿和连续的重要性：

• 当发连续音时，很多人会搞错，把连续音当成停顿，把辅音分成了两半，直接把单词读出来。
  例如：sometimes，不要念的太快，太紧促，连续音要延长。再比如have
• 当停顿的后面跟着另一个辅音时，不要释放，例如pop music -> /po music/.
  当我们释放双唇(停顿)时，听起来像添加啊了一个额外的音节进去，例如：job market, had this

  Job hunting
  top model
  good boy
  that day
  not bad

• 末尾的t停顿

  No, it’s no(t)
  I’m not that hot.
  quiet right
  can, can’t, I can’t go/do it.

I want that blue hat.
Robert, you might be right.
It’s not that different.
What did you eat last night.
I can’t wait for that flight.

重点：保留最后的停顿，把舌头固定在上齿的后面，发t或d或和尚嘴唇，不要释放气流

规则十： 两个原因之间的”T”

city /cidy/, ability /abilidy/, better /bedder/, water /wader/, it is /id iz/
t听起来不发tah，而是duh

当T处于两个原因之间时，听起来更像D音。这种情况也出现在独立的单词之间，例如：Yes，it is.

water, aut(d)omat(d)ic, metal

I got up at eleven o’clock.
Do you want to get in or get out.
I bought it at a computer store.
What a nice day it is.

规则十一：T+N组合

当T的后面跟着N时，T是要发音的，把舌头保持在上齿的后面，不要发下来. 保持舌头在这个位置，然后直接发音，例如written /wriddn/. 使舌头向前直接发”en”的音。

要点：抬起舌头，保持住不要放松，让空气从鼻子经过，发出en的音

mountain, batten, curtain, catten

I am certain that’s the tallest mountain.
My cotton shirt has buttonss.
I have forgetten when the book was written.
Martin was born in Great Britain.

规则十二：”ING”发音

ing, going, doing, thinking
当你发ng音的时候，g在后面，舌头碰到口腔内侧，然而这个g音放得不算太开。 所以，当你发g音时，让这个音停留在那。

• 不要发goingg
• 不要不发g音，不正式

重点：把舌头抬起，放到内侧，并让它保持这个状态。如果你松开，也只能一点一点地松开。

thinking, working, practising, interesting

I am thinking about buying the ring.
Who are you bringing to the wedding.
I love swimming, running, and playing tennis.

记：不要释放舌头，发n音时不要让舌头回到前面。这是一个舌头在后面发出的音，”ng”

规则十三：”TR”和”DR”的发音

有时，当遇到2个辅音时，我们把两个辅音放到一起，发一个全新的音。

当’t’和’d’后面跟着辅音’r’时，组合成一个新的音。

• try -> “ch”, tr = chr，但是发音语气更轻，例如travel, tradition, introduce, control
• dry -> “jr”, dr = jr /dʒ/, 例如，drama, drop, drastic, address, hundred, sandra

Is it true that you took a trip to Detroit.
That was an interesting trick.
Children, don’t drop your drinks.
I hope my dream comes true.

规则十四：”TU”和”DU”的发音

• 当t后面跟着u时，发”ch”音，例如: actually, statue, nature, picture
• 当d后面跟着u时，发”jew”音，例如: graduate, graduation, educate, schedule, individual

t + you组合，发音chew：can’t you => /can’ tyou/, aren’t you
d + you组合，发音jew：did you => /di dyou/, would you

Would you like to see the schedule?
Aren’t you graduating in the spring?
Can’t you see the statue.
Did you get a college education?

规则十五：”Ed”结尾的发音

动词过去式的ed结尾发音:

• waited -> ed
• stopped -> t
• robbed -> d

规则总结：

• 如果动词的最后一个字母是t或者d时，需要添加额外的音节。单词的最后一个字母起作用。

  needED, paintED, waitED, completED, countED, invitED

• 如果最后一个字母是清辅音（voiceless consonant），ed发音为t。例如，p就是清辅音。

  stopped, worked, parked, cooked, passed, laughed, pushed, watched

past和passed的发音，听起来是完全一样的

• 如果最后一个字母是浊辅音（voiced consonant），ed发音为d。例如，b就是浊辅音。 robbed, loved, realized, used, called

I painted /ed/ the walls and fixed /d/ the gate.
I cooked /t/ a meal and washed /t/ the dishes.
I attended /ed/ a party and danced /t/ all night.
He called /d/ his friend and talked /t/ for an hour.

美式发音高阶技巧的十条规则

• 连读，如何连读，为什么连读
  连读可以产生一种母语式的自然发音
• 精简单词，如何精简单词，为什么精简单词
  精简单词可以加强你的语气
• 难发音的，经常犯的一些错误
• 非正式场合和正式场合的语气

规则一：辅音和元音的连续（linking consonant and vowel）

连续指的两个单词连起来读，linking = connecting words together

美国人在说英语的时候，都遵循一些特定的规则。但是他们没有下意识的去遵守规则，很自然流畅的地把这些单词连在一起。 非英语母语的人，就需要学习这些规则。如果你没有连续，那么口语就比较呆板。例如：how are you？

• 当一个读单词以辅音结尾，并且后面跟着的单词以元音开头，这些单词连续

  in an instant => i na ni mstant
  john is a friend of mine => joh ni sa frien do f mine
  i’m an actor => i’ ma na ctor

注意：

1. 连续并不意味着语速快，don’t speak fast
2. 关键词和实义词要重读，否则分不清开始和结尾
3. 分组间不用连续，例如：i’ll call you / in an instant.

更多练习：

build up => buil dup
come over => ca nover
where is => whe ris
call up => ca lup
for a while => fo ra while
what if => wha dif, t在两个元音之间，读音变成短促的d音

hold on a minute => hol don a minute
just a moment => justa moment
a cup of tea => acupof tea
can i think it over => thin kit

规则二：两个辅音的连续 （linking consonant to consonant）

当一个单词以辅音结尾，而下一个单词以辅音开头：

• 如果两个辅音一样，可以只发一次音，不要切成两个单词

  bill likes swimming => bilikeswiming
  stop practicing
  next time
  wish she
  bad day
  bob baker
  going great

• 把相同发音点的辅音连续，发音点指的是发音的接触点（link consonants that have the same point of articulation）
  例如，’p’和’b’有相同的发音点，两个都需要嘴巴合拢；’t’和’d’也有，因为偶是通过舌头碰触牙齿背面发音

  used to => d不发音
  five friend => v和f big kitchen => g和k
  suppose to => s和t
  need to => d和t

• 当辅音的发音是停顿时，例如’p’, ‘b’, ‘t’, ‘d’，跟着的另一个辅音尽管发音点和前面的不一样， 但也要确保的第一个辅音连续读

  a back door, help me
  记住：千万忽略结尾的辅音，如果不是在句末时，后面还跟着其他单词时，也要注意辅音是否发音

更多练习：

i wish she woul dt alk to me.
di dt hat man know about the situation.
i coul dd rive you there right now.
he alway ss eem ss o happy.
i used(x) to work crazy hours bu these days i’ve slowe dd own.

记住：辅音到另一个辅音，平滑很多

规则三：元音和元音的连接（linking vowel to vowel）

当单词以元音结尾，后面的单词以元音开头时，连续；例如：see it => see yit，y是一个短促的y

• 当元音要求你的嘴唇发音变平时，例如元音i，ai，ei，发音是/yuh/

  very interesting => very (y)interesting
  carry on => carry yon
  we all => we yall
  may i => may yi
  enjoy it, boy is

• 当元音让你的嘴唇变圆时，发音是/u/或/ou/

  who is => who wis
  do all, no one, two hour, no answer, blue ocean.

i don’t do it ver yo ften.
why is she so afraid o fi t?
i can see inside the open window.
this is the onl yoo ne i know about
did you see any other ones?

规则四：单词轻读

单词轻读的目的是使连续变得平滑，自然。节奏和重读恰当的另一个规则。
关键是要知道那个单词要轻读，轻读要怎么发音

• 重读实义词（content word），比如名词，动词，形容词，副词；
• 轻读功能词（function word），比如代词，介词，冠词，助动词

  助动词包括will, am, is, do, does，当轻读这些词时，一般都是缩写形式，i’ll go, i’m

当我们轻读介词时，介词的元音一般变成了中性词，发”əh”音，示例如下：

更多练习：

i’d like to see you for a moment
sooner oor latter, you’ll meet our parents.
i went to work, at nine o’clock.
i had bacon and eggs for breakfast.
do you like black and white or color photos?

记：轻读功能词并不意味你可以说快；遇到实义词还是要放慢语速

规则五：单词轻读（二）

轻读代词

• 开头是h和th

  he did
  did he => dide （正式情况下就不轻读），扩展到could，should，would
  him => i tol dim, call him => i’ll callm ask him => askm
  see him => seem
  her, caller, love her => lover, like her => liker, drive her => driver
  th省略，i’ll pick them up => pickem up
  buy them => buyem

当代词以h或th开头，例如：he, his, him, her, hers, them，情况都一样，可以去掉第一个辅音字母

注意：当代词在句首时，不能省略h或th，要把这两个音发出来；有时出于特殊的原因，要重读代词

规则六：缩写（contractions）

缩写在日常交流中非常重要，不使用缩写说话的口音就像一个初学者，还在一个单词一个单词分开读

don’t do that，发音don’t 和do易混淆，如果拆开读do not do that，表示很生气
为了突出或强调的时候，不使用缩写 i’ve been there
i will => i’ll, 不要发ill，要在i和l之间加一个/ə/的音
he will => he’ll
it will => it’ll, t发d的音，类似的，little => /liddle/
she’ll, they’ll
i would, i had 都缩写是i’d
he would -> he’d
has -> he has -> he’s here
are -> you’re, they are -> they’re, we’re hungry
i’ve, they’ve, we’ve, they’ve been there.

更多练习：

it’ll rain all day
it’s good that you’re home.
he’ll call me and i’ll give him the number.
we waited because you said you’d come.
i’ve already eaten but he’ss still hungry.

记住：缩写不一定就是非正式的语言

规则七：难懂的缩写（difficult contractions）

could have -> could dave -> could’ve
should have -> should dove 发/əv/
would’ve
could not have, ot不发音，-> couldnve，类似的，shouldnve, wouldnve，例如：they wouldnve know
would you have -> would you’ve, 类似的, should you’ve
how would she have known -> she’ve

更多练习:

you should’ve seen itt
you should’ve liked it
i shouldn’t have said that to him
i wouldn’t have called you if i’d known you were sleeping
you wouldn’t have been tired, if you’d gone to bed earlier.
what would you’ve said too her

记住：could’ve, couldnve, would’ve

规则八：省略音节（dropped syllables）

纠正常见的错误，有些单词的元音是完全不发音的，音节也可以省略

更多例子：

aspirin -> /asprin/, evening -> /eving/, family -> /famly/
beverage -> /bevrage/, naturally -> naturlly, catholic -> /cathlic/
miserable -> /misrable/, favorite -> /favrite/, extraordinary -> /extradinary/
preference -> /prefrence/, temperature -> /temprature/,
broccoli -> /broccli/
diamond -> /dimond/
laboratory -> /labratory/, several -> /sveral/, opera -> /opra/, camera -> /camra/

更多练习：

i’d like a chocolate beverage
let’s go to a different restaurant
every evening she takes an aspirin
basically, they’re different
i went to an extraordinary opera last night
i actually like broccoli

规则九：比较难的单词

纠正常见错误：关于不发音的字母，比如know，k不发音；bomb，末尾的b不发音

t不发音的单词经常出现在法语演变过来的单词中

规则十：轻松的语音（relax speech）

把讲话的形式和日常的轻松对话做比较

• have -> a, coulda, i woulda call you, i coulda come over

  would have -> woulda, should have -> shoulda

• of -> a, sort of -> soda, kind of -> kinda -> i’m kinda tired, cup of a coffee -> cupa coffee
• to -> a, want to -> wanna -> i wanna go, got to -> gotta -> i gotta eat/go

几条非正式的讲话规则：

• let me -> lemme -> lemme go, lemme help you
• give me -> gimme -> gimme a call, gimme that
• ing结尾, in~~g~~ = in，在非正式语中，比如歌词中，年轻人的说话方式, going = goin, doin, what’s happin

更多练习：

you shoulda told me earlier.
i coulda helped you
i wanna get a cup of coffee.
he’s gonna make a lotta money.
we gotta go shopping because we’re outta food.
lemme introduce you to a frienda mine.

美式英语的15个元音

元音规则一：认识中性元音和紧元音 （neural and tense vowels）

|类别|元音| |:—|:—| |tense|/i/ /ou/| |neural|/I/ /a/ /ə/ (/ʌ/) /ʊ/|

易混淆的单词发音，fool vs full，steel vs still

元音规则二：”sit” or “seat”

区别并不在于发音的长短，而是一个紧（可以延长发音），一个松 易混淆发音：beach vs bitch，sheet vs shit

She was feeling sleepy after eating the big meal.
These three people speak chinese.
We love the green fields and the beach breezes.
Steve believes he will see Peter this week.
I will leave the East Coast in three weeks.

There are six filthy dishes in the kitchen sink.
Mr. and Mrs. Smith lived in india for six years.
Bill took some interesting pictures on this trip to Italy last spring.
The winner wind will bring a big chill.
Do you think that this swimmer has the ability to win.

元音规则三：”cop” or “cup”

|/a/ 元音常见字母组合|单词示例| |:—|:—| |o|hot father army watch|

这个元音的发音通常要比非英语母语说话者发到的音要长
That’s impossible.(拉长上扬)
I love my new job.(拉长上扬)
Mcdonalds => /Mcdanalds/
It’s not robert => /rabert/

|/ə/ 元音常见字母组合|单词示例| |:—|:—| |u|up fun but number| |ou|cousin country| |o|love son other|

声音短而且小

The modern novel is very popular.
Tom will watch hockey with his father.
John will probably study biology in college.
I will not bother to respond to Tom’ss offer.
If you gossip about your boss, you might lose your job.

We must discuss this with other judge.
My buddy Doug is a wonderful drummer.
On mondays he plays the drums in that club.
On Sunday I had duck for lunch with my cousin.
He doesn’t study much and he loves to have fun.

元音规则四：”pool” or “pull”

|/u/ 元音常见字母组合|单词示例| |:—|:—| |oo|food moon| |ue|blue true|

|/ʊ/ 元音常见字母组合|单词示例| |:—|:—| |oo|look took shook| |ould|would could should| |u|push pull|

易混淆的单词发音，fool vs full，luke vs look, pool vs pull

The report was due on Tuesday aat noon.
He knew the value of those two suits.
The crew uses a lot of new tools.
In the future, there will be new school rules.
Susan wore her new shoes to school.

The woman in the wool pull over is good looking.
It would be good if you could help me.
You should walk in the woods.
He took a good look under the hood.
He spent his childhood playing football.

元音规则五：/æ/ as in “apple”

|/æ/ 元音常见字母组合|单词示例| |:—|:—| |a|apple angry man fat dance los Angels class random answer|

/æ/听起来很像/a/
/a/ 英式发音 class match
/æ/ 美式发音 class match

/æ/特别是作为名词或动词时，确保发音要拖长

I can’t stand that class.
Last January, Adam traveled to Los Angels California.
Jack lacks cash because of a bad gambling habit.
Frank is angry, and he demands a fast answer.
I bought my black jacket on my last trip to France.
My Family understands that I can’t handle that matter.

元音规则六：/ɔ/ as in “ball”

|/ɔ/ 元音常见字母组合|单词示例| |:—|:—| |al|tall small always| |au|automobile august audience applaud| |aw|saw law awful|

/ɔ/ 听起来很像 /ou/
/ou/ 英式发音 tall fall /ɔ/ 美式发音 tall fall

He paused in the hall to talk with Paul.
The author talked to small audience.
We all thought you bought it at the mall.
It’s awful that he always breaks the law.
He’s exhausted because he’s been walking all day long.

元音规则七：/ou/ as in “most”

发音技巧：从o到u发音

No, I don’t.
Don’t go.
so slow
almost over
The lonely soldier wrote home.
The wind mostly blows over the ocean.
Do you know who owns most of those homes?
Let’s watch the show in slow motion.
He sold both of his boats.

元音规则八：/ər/ as in “her”

/ər/由短促的中性音/ə/加上”r”组合而成。这个音常用的字母组合可以是任何元音加r构成。

work early
learn the words
early bird
perfect world
It’s your turn to work early on Thursday.
I’m certain that Mr. Turner has courage.
I heard that the first earthquake was the worst.
Don’t worry about learning those German words.
The early bird always gets the worm.

元音规则九：重读元音

banana 有是哪个元音（a），重点，那个音节是需要重读的？
banAna cAnada biOlogy phoToGraphy

一般重读动词和名词，突出关键词（key words）

I love my new class/job.
I love it.
I have to call him.
You’re really tall.
It’s hot.
let’s go to the park.
I got a job at the hospital.

元音规则十：了解弱化元音

元音弱化时，不完全发出那个音。symbol/symbəl/, local/locəl/。ol, al 当元音组成弱化音节时，都可以发/ə/音

record，作为名词时/Record/，作为动词是/reCORD/

对介词赫尔冠词这些无关紧要的词进行弱化（reduce unimportant words），例如，介词in, on, at, for, with, by

Let’s meet at two o’clock.
I’d like to talk to the pilot/pailət/.
Let’s meet for breakfast.
I’d likee to go for a walk.

生成式模型在decoder阶段是一个单词一个单词蹦出来的，但是怎么个蹦法，有很多种方式。以seq2seq模型为例， , 那么在decoder阶段，我们的搜索复杂度是多大？ 假设输出序列, target sequence的词汇表大小是， 那么对于每个单词的搜索空间都是， 那么长度为N的序列，搜索复杂度就是， 可以看出，如果词汇量很大的话，N越长的话，效率太低。

decoder阶段搜索算法

贪心算法

贪心算法很简单，每一步选择概率最大的路径，就是以当前步为起点，找到下一步最大概率的边。

viterbi算法

viterbi算法经常被用于HMM的decoder阶段，使用动态规划的方法求解最优路径。

动态规划思想，在第t步的第k个结点，它的概率等于所有前驱节点概率加连接线概率和的最小值。 整个过程可以抽象成一个填表的过程，。 找到最优路径后，然后再回溯父节点，就可以输出最优路径。 整个过程时间复杂度为， 空间复杂度为。

缺点：算法效率提升很高，当V的大小很小的时候，效率还是很高的。但是，如果词典V很大的话，还是有点高的。

beam search

beam search就是viterbi方法的近似解，可以降低一下时间复杂度，在第t步的第k个节点计算的时候， 前驱节点从V降低到beam search size大小B，B « VE。 第t步的所有节点计算完之后，排序，选择top B个概率最高的点，用于计算第t+1步。 整个过程，每一步时间复杂度降低到, 因为每一步排序所需要的时间复杂度。 这样，整体的时间复杂度就是， 空间复杂度是.

viterbi算法的过程是填一个V x N的表格，那么beam search算法的过程就是填一个B x N的表格,因此效率高了很多。

相关的搜索算法

广度搜索

算法思路：从起点开始，遍历周围邻近的点，阿然后再遍历已经遍历过的点的邻近节点，逐步向外扩散，直到找到终点

缺点：算法过程会遍历图中所有的点，但是没有必要，对于有明确终点的问题，可能会尝试了很多种路径。

Dijkstra算法

广度优先搜索过程有一个假设，就是邻近节点之间的权重是相同的，如果节点之间的边的权重不完全相同，那么在遍历的过程中，需要考虑搜索的总代价，这就是 Dijkstra算法。

算法思路：在扩算的过程中，考虑每个节点距离起点的总代价；将当前遍历到的节点放到优先级队列中，按照优先级排序，每次都取出优先级队里中总代价最小的 节点，直到遍历到终点。

重点：优先级队列

最佳优先搜索（Best First算法）

前提假设：预先计算出每个节点到终点的距离

算法思路：和Dijkstra一样使用优先队列，区别在于，使用节点到终点的距离作为优先级；然后再遍历的过程中，选择最高优先级的节点遍历

好处：加快搜索速度

缺点：如果起点和终点之间存在障碍物，那么最佳搜索算法找到的可能并不是最短路径

A*算法

算法核心：A*算法是结合了Dijkstra算法和最佳优先搜索算法的优点，使用优先级队列，每个节点的优先级既考虑节点到起点的代价，也考虑节点到终点的代价， 即f(n) = g(n) + h(n)，其中：f(n)是节点n的优先级，g(n)是节点n距离起点的代价，h(n)是节点n距离终点的代价

代价函数对算法过程的影响总结：

• 如果h(n)=0，那么A*算法等价于Dijkstra算法；
• 如果h(n)始终小于等于节点n到终点的代价，那么算法一定能够保证找到最短路径；但是当h值越小，算法将遍历更多的节点，即到达终点的速度越慢；
• 如果h(n)完全等于节点到终点的代价，那么算法将找到最佳路径，并且速度很快；
• 如果h(n)比节点n到终点的代价大，那算法并不保证找到最短路径，不过此时会很快；
• 如果h(n)比g(n)大很多，那么此时仅h生效，就变成了最佳优先搜索

距离函数

网状结构的图中，搜索算法常使用的距离函数

• 如果只有上下左右四个方向，可以使用曼哈顿距离；
• 如果运行向8个方向移动，使用对角距离；
• 如果可以向任意方向易懂噢，使用欧几里得距离；

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def manhattan_distance(node, goal):
    """D是一个常数，表示两个相邻节点之间的移动代价，可以取常数1
    """
    dx = abs(node.x - goal.x)
    dy = abs(node.y - goal.y)
    return D * (dx + dy)
    
def diagonal_distance(node, goal):
    '''D2是一个常数，表示两个斜着相邻节点之间的移动代价。如果是每个节点都是正方形，那么可以D2=根号2*D
    '''
    dx = abs(node.x - goal.x)
    dy = abs(node.y - goal.y)
    return D * (dx + dy) + (D2 - 2 * D) * min(dx, dy) 
    
def euclidean_distance(node, goal):
    dx = abs(node.x - goal.x)
    dy = abs(node.y - goal.y)
    return D * sqrt(dx * dx + dy * dy)

A*算法变种 （续）

参考文章